Abstract
Lithium has emerged as a critical element in the global transition toward sustainable energy systems, primarily due to its indispensable role in rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. The growing demand for electric vehicles, portable electronics, and grid-scale energy storage has intensified the need for efficient and sustainable lithium recovery and extraction processes. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of lithium sourcing from both primary resources—such as spodumene, petalite, and lithium-rich brines—and secondary resources, including spent batteries, industrial residues, and other end-of-life products. The paper examines conventional extraction techniques, such as pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes, alongside emerging technologies like direct lithium extraction (DLE), ion-exchange, membrane separation, and deep eutectic solvents (DES). Special emphasis is placed on the environmental and economic implications of these methods, highlighting challenges such as resource depletion, energy intensity, and waste generation. Furthermore, the review explores circular economy strategies and innovative approaches for selective lithium recovery from complex matrices, aiming to minimize ecological impact while ensuring supply security. By synthesizing recent advancements and identifying research gaps, this work provides a roadmap for developing sustainable, cost-effective, and scalable lithium extraction technologies to meet future energy demands.